Study On Adaptive Delta Modulation And Demodulation Computer Science Essay

Study On Adaptive Delta Modulation And Demodulation Computer Science Essay A modem to improve communication system performance that uses multiple modulation scheme comprising modulation technique and encoder combinations. As communication system performance and objective change, different modulation schemes may be selected. Modulation schemes may also be selected upon the communication channel scattering function estimate and the modem estimates the channel scattering function from measurements of the channels frequency (Doppler) and time (multipath) spreading characteristics. An Adaptive sigma delta modulation and demodulation technique, wherein a quantizer step size is adapted based on estimates of an input signal to the quantizer, rather than on estimates of an input signal to the modulator. A technique for digital conferencing of voice signals in systems using adaptive delta modulation (ADM) with an idle pattern of alternating 1s and 0s has been described. Based on majority logic, it permits distortion-free reception of voice of a single active subscriber by all the other subscribers in the conference. Distortion exists when more than one subscriber is active and the extent of this distortion depends upon the type of ADM algorithm that has been used. An LSI oriented system based on time sharing of a common circuit by a number of channels has been implemented and tested. This technique, with only minor changes in circuitry, handles ADM channels that have idle patterns different from alternating single 1s and 0s. This method used for noise reduction. The modulator factor does not require a large amount of data to be represented. Representation is based upon a frequency domain function having particular characteristics. A preferred embodiment of the invention incorporates transform or sub band filtered signals which are transmitted as a modulated analog representation of a local region of a video signal. The modulation factor reflects the particular characteristic. Side information specifies the modulation factor 1.2. Aim: Digital techniques to wirelessly communicate voice information. Wireless environments are inherently noisy, so the voice coding scheme chosen for such an application must be robust in the presence of bit errors. Pulse Coded Modulation (PCM) and its derivatives are commonly used in wireless consumer products for their compromise between voice quality and implementation cost. Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM) is another voice coding scheme, a mature technique that should be considered for these applications because of its bit error robustness and its low implementation cost. 1.3. Objective: To show the Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM) voice coding scheme which is the best coding scheme procedure when compare to all other techniques. The main part of the procedure is illustrated. 1.4. Methodology: Getting knowledge over different modulation and demodulation techniques Understanding Delta modulation and Adaptive delta modulation. Studying Matlab-Simulink which is used for designing of circuit. Implementing the circuit in the lab. Tuning and fixing and calculating its efficiency CHAPTER I Delta Modulation: Delta modulation is also abbreviated as DM or Ά-modulation. It is a technique of conversion from an analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog signal. If we want to transmit the voice we use this technique. In this technique we do not give that much of importance to the quality of the voice. DM is nothing but the simplest form of differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM). But there is some difference between these two techniques. In DPCM technique the successive samples are encoded into streams of n-bit data. But in delta modulation, the transmitted data is reduced to a 1-bit data stream. Main features: * The analog signal is similar as a series of segments. * To find the increase or decrease in relative amplitude, we should compare each and every segment of the approximated signal with the original analog wave. * By this comparison of original and approximated analog waves we can determine the successive bits for establishing. * only the change of information is sent, that is, only an increase or decrease of the signal amplitude from the previous sample is sent whereas a no-change condition causes the modulated signal to remain at the same 0 or 1 state of the previous sample. By using oversampling techniques in delta modulation we can get large high signal-to-noise ratio. That means the analog signal is sampled at multiple higher than the Nyquist rate. Principle In delta modulation, it quantizes the difference between the current and the previous step rather than the absolute value quantization of the input analog waveform, which is shown in fig 1. Fig. 1 Block diagram of a Ά-modulator/demodulator The quantizer of the delta modulator converts the difference between the input signal and the average of the previous steps. The quantizer is measured by a comparator with reference to 0 (in 2- level quantizer), and its output is either 1 or 0. 1 means input signal is positive and 0 means negative. It is also called as a bit-quantizer because it quantizes only one bit at a time. The output of the demodulator rises or falls because it is nothing but an Integrator circuit. If 1 received means the output raises and if 0 received means output falls. The integrator internally has a low-pass filter it self. Transfer Characteristics A signum function is followed by the delta modulator for the transfer characteristics. It quantizes only levels of two number and also for at a time only one-bit. Output signal power In delta modulation amplitude it is does not matter that there is no objection on the amplitude of the signal waveform, due to there is any fixed number of levels. In addition to, there is no limitation on the slope of the signal waveform in delta modulation. We can observe whether a slope is overload if so it can be avoided. However, in transmitted signal there is no limit to change. The signal waveform changes gradually. Bit-rate The interference is due to possibility of in either DM or PCM is due to limited bandwidth in communication channel. Because of the above reason DM and PCM operates at same bit-rate. Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM) Another type of DM is Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM). In which the step-size isnt fixed. The step-size becomes progressively larger when slope overload occurs. When quantization error is increasing with expensive the slope error is also reduced by ADM. By using a low pass filter this should be reduced. The basic delta modulator was studied in the experiment entitled Delta modulation. It is implemented by the arrangement shown in block diagram form in Figure Figure: Basic Delta Modulation A large step size was required when sampling those parts of the input waveform of steep slope. But a large step size worsened the granularity of the sampled signal when the waveform being sampled was changing slowly. A small step size is preferred in regions where the message has a small slope. This suggests the need for a controllable step size the control being sensitive to the slope of the sampled signal. This can be implemented by an arrangement such as is illustrated in Figure Fig: An Adaptive Delta Modulator The gain of the amplifier is adjusted in response to a control voltage from the SAMPLER, which signals the onset of slope overload. The step size is proportional to the amplifier gain. This was observed in an earlier experiment. Slope overload is indicated by a succession of output pulses of the same sign. The TIMS SAMPLER monitors the delta modulated signal, and signals when there is no change of polarity over 3 or more successive samples. The actual ADAPTIVE CONTROL signal is +2 volt under normal conditions, and rises to +4 volt when slope overload is detected. The gain of the amplifier, and hence the step size, is made proportional to this Control voltage. Provided the slope overload was only moderate the approximation will catch up with the wave being sampled. The gain will then return to normal until the sampler again falls behind. Comparison of PCM and DM When coming to comparison of Signal-to-noise ratio DM has larger value than signal-to-noise ratio of PCM. Also for an ADM signal-to-noise ratio when compared to Signal-to-noise ratio of companded PCM. Complex coders and decoders are required for powerful PCM. If to increase the resolution we require a large number of bits per sample. There are no memories in Standard PCM systems each sample value is separately encoded into a series of binary digits. An alternative, which overcomes some limitations of PCM, is to use past information in the encoding process. Delta modulation is the one way of doing to perform source coding. The signal is first quantized into discrete levels. For quantization process the step size between adjacent samples should be kept constant. From one level to an adjacent one the signal makes a transition of transmission. After the quantization operation is done, sending a zero for a negative transition and a one for a positive transition the signal transmission is achieved. We can observe from this point that the quantized signal must change at each sampling point. The transmitted bit train would be 111100010111110 for the above case. The demodulator for a delta-modulated signal is nothing but a staircase generator. To increments the staircase in positively a one should be received. For negative increments a zero should be receive. This is done by a low pass filter in general. The main thing for the delta modulation is to make the right choice of step size and sampling period. A term overloading is occurred when a signal changes randomly fast for the steps to follow. The step size and the sampling period are the important parameters. In modern consumer electronics short-range digital voice transmission is used. There are many products which uses digital techniques. Such as cordless telephones, wireless headsets (for mobile and landline telephones), baby monitors are few of the items. This digital techniques used Wirelessly communicate voice information. Due to inherent noise in wireless environments the Voice coding scheme chosen. For such an application the presence of robust bit errors must be. In the presence of bit errors Pulse Coded Modulation (PCM) and its derivatives are commonly used in wireless consumer products. This is due to their compromise between voice quality and implementation cost, but these are not robust schemes. Another important voice coding scheme is Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM). It is a mature technique for consideration for these types of applications due to its robustness in bit error and its low implementation cost. To quantize the difference between the current sample and the predicted value of the next Sample ADM is used. It uses a variable called step height which is used to adjustment of the prediction value of the next sample. For the reproduction of both slowly and rapidly changing input signals faithfully. In ADM, the representation of each sample is one bit (i.e. 1 or 0). It does not require any data framing for one-bit-per-sample stream to minimizing the workload on the host microcontroller. In any digital wireless application there should be Bit errors. In ideal environment most of the voice coding techniques are provided which are good in quality of audio signals. The main thing is to provide good audio signals in everyday environment, there may be a presence of bit errors. For different voice coding methods and input signals the traditional performance metrics (e.g. SNR) does not measure accurately in audio quality. . Mean Opinion Score (MOS) testing is the main important parameter which overcomes the limitations of other metrics by successfully in audio quality. For audio quality the MOS testing is used. It is a scale of 1 to 5 which tells the audio quality status. In there 1 represents very less (bad) speech quality and 5 represents excellent speech quality. A toll quality speech has a MOS score of 4 or higher than it. The audio quality of a traditional telephone call has same MOS value as above. The below graphs shows the relationship between MOS scores and bit errors for three of the most common voice coding schemes. Those are CVSD, ÃŽÂ ¼-law PCM, and ADPCM. A continuously Variable Slope Delta (CVSD) coding is a member of the ADM family in voice coding schemes. The below graph shows the resulted audio quality (i.e. MOS score). All three schemes explain the number of bit errors. As the no of bit errors increases the graph indicates that ADM (CVSD) sounds better than the other schemes which are also increase. In an ADM design error detection and correction typically are not used because ADM provides poor performance in the presence of bit errors. This leads to reduction in host processor workload (allowing a low-cost processor to be used). The superior noise immunity significantly reduced for wireless applications in voice coding method. The ADM is supported strongly by workload for the host processor. The following example shows the benefits of ADM for wireless applications and is demonstrated. For a complete wireless voice product this low-power design is used which includes all of the building blocks, small form-factor, including the necessary items. ADM voice codec Microcontroller RF transceiver Power supply including rechargeable battery Microphone, speaker, amplifiers, etc. Schematics, board layout files, and microcontroller code written in C. Delta modulation (DM) may be viewed as a simplified form of DPCM in which a two level (1-bit) quantizer is used in conjunction with a fixed first-order predictor. The block diagram of a DM encoder-decoder is shown below.   The dm_demo shows the use of Delta Modulation to approximate an input sine wave signal and a speech signal that were sampled at 2 KHz and 44 KHz, respectively. The source code file of the MATLAB code and the out put can be viewed using MATLAB. Notice that the approximated value follows the input value much closer when the sampling rate is higher. You may test this by changing sampling frequency, fs, value for sine wave in dm_demo file. Since DM (Delta Modulator) approximate a waveform Sa (t) by a linear staircase function, the waveform Sa (t) must change slowly relative to the sampling rate. This requirement implies that waveform Sa (t) must be oversampled, i.e., at least five times the Nyquist rate. Oversampling means that the signal is sampled faster than is necessary. In the case of Delta Modulation this means that the sampling rate will be much higher than the minimum rate of twice the bandwidth. Delta Modulation requires oversampling in order to obtain an accurate prediction of the next input. Since each encoded sample contains a relatively small amount of information Delta Modulation systems require higher sampling rates than PCM systems. At any given sampling rate, two types of distortion, as shown below limit the performance of the DM encoder.   Slope overload distortion: This type of distortion is due to the use of a step size delta that is too small to follow portions of the waveform that have a steep slope. It can be reduced by increasing the step size. Granular noise: This results from using a step size that is too large too large in parts of the waveform having a small slope. Granular noise can be reduced by decreasing the step size. Even for an optimized step size, the performance of the DM encoder may still be less satisfactory. An alternative solution is to employ a variable step size that adapts itself to the short-term characteristics of the source signal. That is the step size is increased when the waveform has a step slope and decreased when the waveform has a relatively small slope. This strategy is called adaptive DM (ADM). Block Diagram Adaptive Delta Modulation for Audio Signals: While transmitting speech for e.g. telephony the transfer rate should be kept as small as possible to save bandwidth because of economic reason. For this purpose Delta Modulation, adaptive Delta modulation, Differential Pulse-Code modulation is used to compress the data. In this different kind of Delta modulations and Differential Pulse Code modulations (DPCM) were realized to compress audio data. At first the principal of compressing audio data are explained, which the modulations based on. Mathematical equations (e.g. Auto Correlation) and algorithm (LD recursion) are used to develop solutions. Based on the mathematics and principals Simulink models were implemented for the Delta modulation, Adaptive Delta modulation as well as for the adaptive Differential Pulse Code modulation. The theories were verified by applying measured signals on these models. CHAPTER II Pulse-code modulation: Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent sampled analog signals, which was invented by Alec Reeves in 1937. It is the standard form for digital audio in computers and various Compact Disc and DVD formats, as well as other uses such as digital telephone systems. A PCM stream is a digital representation of an analog signal, in which the magnitude of the analogue signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals, with each sample being quantized to the nearest value within a range of digital steps. PCM streams have two basic properties that determine their fidelity to the original analog signal: the sampling rate, which is the number of times per second that samples are taken; and the bit-depth, which determines the number of possible digital values that each sample can take. Digitization as part of the PCM process In conventional PCM, the analog signal may be processed (e.g. by amplitude compression) before being digitized. Once the signal is digitized, the PCM signal is usually subjected to further processing (e.g. digital data compression). PCM with linear quantization is known as Linear PCM (LPCM). Some forms of PCM combine signal processing with coding. Older versions of these systems applied the processing in the analog domain as part of the A/D process; newer implementations do so in the digital domain. These simple techniques have been largely rendered obsolete by modern transform-based audio compression techniques. * DPCM encodes the PCM values as differences between the current and the predicted value. An algorithm predicts the next sample based on the previous samples, and the encoder stores only the difference between this prediction and the actual value. If the prediction is reasonable, fewer bits can be used to represent the same information. For audio, this type of encoding reduces the number of bits required per sample by about 25% compared to PCM. * Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM) is a variant of DPCM that varies the size of the quantization step, to allow further reduction of the required bandwidth for a given signal-to-noise ratio. * Delta modulation is a form of DPCM which uses one bit per sample. In telephony, a standard audio signal for a single phone call is encoded as 8000 analog samples per second, of 8 bits each, giving a 64 Kbit/s digital signal known as DS0. The default signal compression encoding on a DS0 is either ÃŽÂ ¼-law (mu-law) PCM (North America and Japan) or A-law PCM (Europe and most of the rest of the world). These are logarithmic compression systems where a 12 or 13-bit linear PCM sample number is mapped into an 8-bit value. This system is described by international standard G.711. An alternative proposal for a floating point representation, with 5-bit mantissa and 3-bit radix, was abandoned. Where circuit costs are high and loss of voice quality is acceptable, it sometimes makes sense to compress the voice signal even further. An ADPCM algorithm is used to map a series of 8-bit  µ-law or A-law PCM samples into a series of 4-bit ADPCM samples. In this way, the capacity of the line is doubled. The technique is detailed in the G.726 standard. Later it was found that even further compression was possible and additional standards were published. Pulse code modulation (PCM) data are transmitted as a serial bit stream of binary-coded time-division multiplexed words. When PCM is transmitted, premodulation filtering shall be used to confine the radiated RF spectrum. These standards define pulse train structure and system design characteristics for the implementation of PCM telemetry formats. Class Distinctions and Bit-Oriented Characteristics The PCM formats are divided into two classes for reference. Serial bit stream characteristics are described below prior to frame and word oriented definitions. Two classes of PCM formats are covered in this chapter: the basic, simpler types are class I, and the more complex applications are class II. The use of any class II technique requires concurrence of the range involved. All formats with characteristics described in these standards are class I except those identified as class II. The following are examples of class II characteristics: a. Bit rates greater than 10 megabits per second b. Word length in excess of 32 bits. c. fragmented words d. more than 8192 bits or 1024 words per minor frame. e. uneven spacing, not within the definition of sub commutation or super commutation f. Format changes. g. asynchronous embedded formats h. tagged data formats. i. packet telemetry j. formats with data content other than unsigned straight binary, discrete, or complement arithmetic representation for negative numbers such as floating point variables, binary-coded decimal, and gain-and-value k. asynchronous data transmission l. merger of multiple format types Demodulation: Demodulation is the act of extracting the original information-bearing signal from a modulated carrier wave. A demodulator is an electronic circuit used to recover the information content from the modulated carrier wave. These terms are traditionally used in connection with radio receivers, but many other systems use many kinds of demodulators. Another common one is in a modem, which is a contraction of the terms modulator/demodulator. Techniques: There are several ways of demodulation depending on how parameters of the base-band signal are transmitted in the carrier signal, such as amplitude, frequency or phase. For example, for a signal modulated with a linear modulation, like AM (Amplitude Modulated), we can use a synchronous detector. On the other hand, for a signal modulated with an angular modulation, we must use an FM (Frequency Modulation) demodulator or a PM (Phase Modulation) demodulator. Different kinds of circuits perform these functions. Many techniques-such as carrier recovery, clock recovery, bit slip, frame synchronization, rake receiver, pulse compression, Received Signal Strength Indication, error detection and correction, etc. are only performed by demodulators, although any specific demodulator may perform only some or none of these techniques. Some Attributes of Demodulated data One important attribute of demodulation (or demod) data is that it focuses on high frequency vibration. Using a high pass filter, low frequency data is filtered out and a data collector is able to zoom in on low level high frequency vibration. This means that some peaks that would otherwise be lost in the noise floor of a normal narrow band spectrum (much lower than the normal vibration a machine emits) can be detected using demodulation techniques. Another feature of demod, or of high frequency vibration in general, is that it is easily attenuated and does not travel well through a machines structure (termed the disco effect). As one moves away from a loud music source, one tends to hear only the bass, or low frequency sound, since the treble or high frequency sounds dissipate rather quickly. This implies that vibration detected with demod is usually produced locally. In the case of a motor driving a pump through a coupling, demod data collected on the pump end will usually reflect the vibration emitted by the pump end. Lower frequency vibration may be transmitted through the coupling and may even be amplified on the other end of the machine depending upon its mobility. CHAPTER III Results: Critical Analysis: CHAPTER IV Conclusion: Short-range wireless digital voice transmission is used extensively in contemporary consumer electronics. Products such as cordless telephones, wireless headsets (for mobile and landline telephones) and baby monitors are just a few of the items that use digital techniques to wirelessly communicate voice information. Wireless environments are inherently noisy, so the voice coding scheme chosen for such an application must be robust in the presence of bit errors. Pulse coded modulation (PCM) and its derivatives are commonly used in wireless consumer products for their compromise between voice quality and implementation cost, but these schemes are not particularly robust in the presence of bit errors. Adaptive delta modulation (ADM) is a mature technique that should be considered for these applications because of its bit error robustness and its low implementation cost. ADM is a voice coding technique that quantizes the difference between the current sample and the predicted value of the next sample. It uses a variable step height to adjust the predicted value of the next sample so that both slowly and rapidly changing input signals can be faithfully reproduced. One bit is used to represent each sample in ADM. The one-bit-per-sample ADM data stream requires no data framing, thereby minimizing the workload on the host microcontroller. CHAPTER V

People attend college or university for many different reasons Essay

People attend college or university for many different reasons (for example, new experiences, career preparation, increased knowledge). Why do you think people attend college or university? Use specific reasons and details to support your answer. People attend college or university for many different reasons. However, in my opinion, I think that people attend college or university because they want to prepare for their career and to increase knowledge. Now I elaborate the two reasons why I think this way. The first reason why I think people attend college or university is because they want to prepare for their career. These days, a lot of people try to go to famous or high quality colleges. By entering the college, it proves that the person had worked hard to enter the college and has absorbed high quality knowledge from the college, which helps the person to get the career the person wants. Because a lot of companies want the best worker they can get to enhance the value of the company. Therefore, by attending college or university, people can get careers easier. This is the first reason why I think that people attend college or universities to prepare for their career. The second reason why I think people enter college or university is because they want to increase their knowledge. Colleges and universities provide the best information and knowledge for the students to learn. By taking high quality classes from college, they will get more intelligent. Plus, students will learn life lessons and experiences which will help them next time when they are in a same situation in the future. Students will be wiser than they were before, taking a step closer to getting a career they want, and another step closer to success in life. Therefore, people attend college or university to gain more knowledge. There are various reasons why people enter college or university. However, the two reasons above clearly states that I believe people attend to college to enhance their knowledge and to prepare for their career.

Secondary Essay Samples Medical School Describe Yourself Tips

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Medical students from the very best schools may be slightly more competitive than students from lower-ranked schools, but if you've got top grades, higher USMLE scores, and superior letters of recommendation, you've equally as much shot at matching at a top residency program as students at the very best schools. The Most Popular Secondary Essay Samples Medical School Describe Yourself You are going to have lot of essays to write in a short period of time, and therefore don't focus too long on a s ingle school essay. It is not quite as easy as saying that the course should concentrate on the English language. You should write a crystal clear and concise statement. Unfortunately it isn't a simple answer.

Adjective Order - Definition and Examples in Grammar

In English grammar, adjective order is the customary order in which two or more adjectives appear in front of a noun phrase. Although adjective order in English isnt random, ordering relations . . . are tendencies rather than rigid rules. (David Dennison, Cambridge History of the English Language) Examples and Observations (a) Very smart little gold-plated collar pins come in various designs.(Marion C. Taylor, Shopping for the Smart Set. The Smart Set, December 1911)(b) Stanley was the little smart one whom we went to for authoritative answers.(Philip Zimbardo, The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil. Random House, 2007)(a) This brave old man and his sons were amongst the first to hear and heed the trumpet of freedom calling them to battle.(Frederick Douglas, Life and Times of Frederick Douglas, 1881)(b) This is the roadstead all of boardreached by the sailorwearing the watchthat tells the timeof the old, brave manthat lies in the house of Bedlam.(Elizabeth Bishop, Visits to St. Elizabeths. Partisan Review, Spring 1957)[A] brave young man and a brave old man are acceptable, but *brave blond man is not. Both young and old help specify the meaning of brave (brave young ... suggests taking risks, and brave old . . . suggests enduring, perhaps), but brave blond... is odd because it has no appropriate meaning elements to specify the sense of brave.(Jim Feist, Premodifiers in English: Their Structure and Significance. Cambridge University Press, 2012) The order of adjectives in English is not rand om; different types of adjectives occur in a certain order. The exception to this is with adjectives of general description and those of physical state (size, shape, color), where their order may be reversed. ( 16a) They own an enormous, long-handled cutting knife.( 16b) They own a long-handled, enormous cutting knife.( 17a) She has a round yellow sofa.( 17b) She has a yellow round sofa. When the adjective order is reversed, as in the sentences above, the speaker generally wants to emphasize or draw attention to the first adjective in the sequence.Native speakers and highly proficient non-native speakers know intuitively the order in which adjectives should occur when more than one is used. . . . However, the order of a string of adjectives is something that ESL/EFL learners need to learn.   (Andrea DeCapua, Grammar for Teachers: A Guide to American English for Native and Non-Native Speakers. Springer, 2008) The Order of Limiting and Descriptive Adjectives When limiting and descriptive adjectives appear together, the limiting adjectives precede the descriptive adjectives, with the articles usually in the first position: The ten yellow taxis were sold at auction.[article ( The), limiting adjective ( ten), descriptive adjective ( yellow)] (Gerald J. Alred, Charles T. Brusaw, and Walter E. Oliu, The Business Writers Handbook, 9th ed. Macmillan, 2010) The Order of Adjectives in a Series Sometimes adjectives appear in a string; when they do, they must appear in a particular order according to category.Adjective appear in the following order: 1. Determiners-- articles and other limiters . . .2. Observation--postdeterminers and limiter adjectives and adjectives subject to subjective measure . . .3. Size and shape--adjectives subject to objective measure . . .4. Age--adjectives describing age . . .5. Color--adjectives describing color . . .6. Origin--adjectives denoting the source of the noun . . .7. Material--adjectives describing what something is made of . . .8. Qualifier--final limiter that is often part of the noun . . . (Kevin Wilson and Jennifer Wauson, The AMA Handbook of Business Writing: The Ultimate Guide to Style, Grammar, Punctuation, Usage, Construction, and Formatting. AMACOM, 2010) Norms and Variations Adjectives have mutual ordering relations which are tendencies rather than rigid rules: big brown bag is a more likely ordering than brown big bag. Over the entire recorded history of English there have been some changes here--compare Chaucers the old pore mans deth--but in our period there seems to be little chronological variation. We find such examples as ( 93a) but indeed that little foolish Woman has made me very uneasy.(1789 Betsy Sheridan, Journal 60 p. 171 ([15 June])( 93b) you little ungrateful puss(1848 Gaskell, Mary Barton vi.87)( 93c) Mrs Lee is a little timid woman(1850 Gaskell, Letters 70 p. 112 [26 April])( 93d) they came into the little interesting criss-crossy streets that held the most interesting shops of all(1906 Nesbit, Amulet i.18)( 94a) Then there is an old curious seat of the Marquis of Northampton(1838 Gaskell, Letters 12 p. 28 [18 August])( 94b) down some old mysterious stone steps(1841 ibid. 15 p. 820)( 95) in order to find the knitting old woman [some old woman who was famous . . . for her skill in knitting woolen stockings](1851-3 Gaskell, Cranford xi.101) In (93) we might expect little to come one place further to the right in PDE [present-day English], likewise old in (94), while knitting in (95) would probably come next to the head noun. Of course, isolated oddities do not in themselves show a difference in the language system, since at any period there has been freedom to violate the norms of adjectival order.(David Dennison, Syntax. The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume 4, ed. by Suzanne Romaine. Cambridge University Press, 1998) Idiomatic Placement of Adjectives Harper 1975, 1985 points out that some precisians--nit-pickers is Harpers word--object to the illogical placement of adjectives in such expressions as a hot cup of coffee, a brand-new pair of shoes. The argument is that its the coffee thats hot, the shoes that are brand-new. . . . Harper points out that the placement of these adjectives is idiomatically correct, so the nitpickers may be ignored.(Merriam-Websters Dictionary of English Usage. Merriam-Webster, 1994) Semantic Factors Affecting Adjective Order In most publications that discuss adjective order, the semantics of the adjectives is presented as the main factor determining their ordering, although phonological and pragmatic factors (like euphony, idiomacy and emphasis) are generally thought to have some influence as well. The publications do not agree, however, on the nature of the semantic factor that is responsible for the order of the adjectives. Biber et al. (1999) argue that (English) adjectives expressing inherent features have to stand closer to the noun than those expressing non-inherent features (e.g. a new red ball). Martin (1969), Posner (1986) and Sproat and Shih (1988), on the other hand, assume that the crucial factor for adjective ordering is their (in)dependence on comparison (i.e. the degree in which recognition of the feature asks for comparison with other objects). They argue that the less dependent on the comparison, the nearer the adjective is placed to the noun. Hetzron (1978) and Risselada (1984), in thei r turn, suppose that the subjectivity/objectivity of the adjectives controls their position: the more objective the quality expressed by the adjective (i.e. the more a matter of recognition instead of opinion), the closer to the noun it has to be expressed (e.g. a nice green shirt, *a green nice shirt). Wulff (2003), finally, concludes on the basis of a statistical corpus analysis that various factors affect adjective ordering, of which (in)dependence on the comparison, affective load and the subjectivity/objectivity of the adjective are most influential.(Stà ©phanie J. Bakker, The Noun Phrase in Ancient Greek. Brill, 2009) Also Known As: order of adjectives, adjectival order